Early in his career Einstein developed the notion that nothing in the universe could move faster than the speed of light. His thinking on the nature of light led to his concerning himself with a skeleton in Newton's closet. The equations Newton originated were sufficient to calculate how, for example, we could plot the course to put a man on the moon, but Newton went on to argue that if the sun disintegrated, the earth and the moon would instantly fly off into space. What that meant was that gravity, or in this case the lack of it, would have to move faster than the speed of light. Einstein calculated that it would take eight seconds for the disintegration of the sun to affect the earth. One thing led to another, and eventually Einstein theorized that the three known dimensions of space could be combined with time to produce a concept he called the space time continuum. In this view very heavy masses such as the earth created a warp in the fabric of space time, likened to a trampoline, and that it was this curvature of the space time fabric that caused what we observe as gravity. Eventually, Einstein's work became known as the General Theory of Relativity, which remains the flagship of our outer space musings.
In another area of scientific progression toward a steady state, entirely predictable universe. James Clerk Maxwell, whom Einstein greatly admired, had developed the idea that both electricity and magnetism were governed by the same set of laws, and he correctly calculated that electric and magnetic waves moved through empty space at a speed of 310,740,000 meters per second. This figure was so close to the speed of light that Einstein believed they were all covered by the same set of universal laws, and he spent the rest of his life determined to come up with a single equation set that would fully describe the entire universe. The most difficult barrier to an all encompassing theory was the fact that the electromagnetic force was billions of times stronger than the force of gravity. But Einstein believed that he was so close to developing the Theory of Everything that he pretty much lost contact with the rest of the scientific world,
Meanwhile, back at the ranch, Neils Bohr had turned his gaze from the vastness of outer space to the atomistic inner existence. Long gone were the days when atoms were considered the smallest particle, giving rise to The Theory of Everything metaphor that atoms were like tiny solar systems with the nucleus, consisting of neutrons and protons and with electrons orbiting around the nucleus like little planets around the sun. But in the quest to understand what was going on in the interaction between these parts the equations that worked so well in describing the vast universe produced nonsense results when they were applied to the inner workings of atoms.
* Enter Quantum Mechanics. General Relativity exits stage right*
As Bohr and his colleagues began poking around inside the atom the things they discovered seemed absolutely insane when viewed from the perspective of our everyday world. Perhaps the most disconcerting was that one could never be sure about exactly what was going to happen there. The certainty of Relativistic calculations could only be expressed as probabilities in the Quantum world. In addition to a universe of uncertainty at the subatomic level, scientists soon discovered two more forces to add to the electromagnetic/gravity stew. Balancing the strange reality scientists found at the subatomic level with mundane words to describe what they discovered, they dubbed the first new force the Strong Nuclear Force, which bound the protons and neutrons tightly together, and the other, the Weak Nuclear Force, which gave permission for neutrons to turn into protons as long as they gave back some energy in the form of radiation. While the proof of gravity arose from the wussy force of a falling apple, proof of the quantum world was a bit more dramatic, coming in the form of an explosion 100 feet in the air over our western desert in 1945 with the force of 20,000 tons of TNT.
Both the mathematics of General Relativity and the mathematics of Quantum Mechanics held up in the rigorous laboratory of scientific research. But still, the prospects for one grand Theory of Everything were looking pretty dim. Here we had two opposing views of the universe, each of which played extremely well in their home court but resisted being combined with a tenacity that put the Strong Nuclear Force to shame. [No extra charge for mixed metaphors].
Meanwhile, back at the other ranch of high energy particle physics, the structure of the atom was getting vastly more complex. By smashing particles together at fantastic speeds and recording the results, the population of subatomic particles was growing rapidly. Physicists were once again hopeful that they were well on the road to the Theory of Everything. Perhaps a little too presumptuously, they called their theory the Standard Model. But once again the ultimate party pooper quelled the celebration. Gravity. It was still the odd man out. Gravity had no discernable impact on the tiny particles within the subatomic world, and the ability to combine gravity with the other three forces seemed an unattainable goal.
While scientists were becoming more comfortable with the strange world of quantum mechanics, a far stranger development was brewing on the wrong side of the theoretical tracks. Mathematics that would eventually be called String Theory were taking shape. Seldom has a growing body of knowledge had a bumpier, roller coaster ride on the mathematical credibility train. Even its beginning had a
sort of a twilight zone quality to it. An Italian physicist had come across a 200 year old equation that he eventually came to understand perfectly described the Strong Nuclear force, but the equation appeared long before anyone even imagined the inner workings of atoms. Eventually, Leonard Susskind became fascinated with an odd aspect of the equation. Rather than pointing to an even smaller particle, the equation seemed to be suggesting movement at the deepest level. The very bottom of things seemed to be flexible strands of energy that appeared to vibrate in a fantastic array of shapes and configurations. As with many if not most new ideas that radically challenge accepted viewpoints, the implications that the bottom of everything was a tiny strand of energy rather than a tiny fixed particle did not attract much attention from the scientific frontiers.
Most of the scientific gentry dismissed the equation as a mathematical curiosity, and only a few physicists continued to develop the concepts. Not only was the development plagued with serious anomalies, but the mathematics also suggested a massless particle, something that couldn't be seen and probably didn't exist. Among the recalcitrant diehards, John Schwartz struggled for four years trying to solve some of the intractable problems with little success. But then one night Schwartz had a Newtonian moment. The weight of a massless particle falling on his head was less traumatic than the apple that bonked Newton's noggin, but the result was eerily the same. Schwartz realized that the equations were describing gravity as it operated at the quantum level. Schwartz was only able to dig up one ally in his quest. He was joined by Michael Green from the University of Cambridge and they plodded onward with no encouragement or support other than their own conviction that they were on the right path. Schwartz and Green were led inexorably to the conclusion that not only did String Theory describe the workings of gravity at the quantum level, but it offered promise of Einstein's unfulfilled dream of combining the Four Forces into one all encompassing, genuine Theory of Everything. Expecting their usual cool reception by the big guys, they were bowled over by the response. String theory suddenly became a major league strange attractor, and literally hundreds of budding young physicists rushed to jump on the String Theory bandwagon.
While scientists were becoming more comfortable with the strange world of quantum mechanics, a far stranger development was brewing on the wrong side of the theoretical tracks. Mathematics that would eventually be called String Theory were taking shape. The work was generally ignored by mainstream research, but it just wouldn't go away. Its beginning had sort of a twilight zone quality to it. An Italian physicist had come across a 200 year old equation that he eventually came to understand perfectly described the Strong Nuclear force, but the equation appeared long before anyone even imagined the inner workings of atoms. Eventually, one physicist became fascinated with an odd aspect of the equation. Rather than pointing to an even smaller particle, the equation seemed to be suggesting movement at the deepest level. The very bottom of things seemed to be flexible strands of energy that appeared to vibrate in a fantastic array of shapes and configurations. However, his discovery was basically ignored by the status quo of theoretical research.
Only a few physicists continued to dabble in an area that the scientific gentry had dismissed entirely. Among the recalcitrant diehards, John Schwartz struggled for four years trying to solve some of the intractable problems that developed within the mathematics. One, the theory suggested a massless particle, something that couldn't be seen and probably didn't exist. Also the theory was plagued by a series of anomalies, a fact that I report to you because Schwartz and others said so, not because I understand, even vaguely what they were. But then one night Schwartz had a Newtonian moment. The weight of a massless particle falling on his head was less traumatic than the apple that bonked Newton's noggin, but the result was eerily the same. Schwartz realized that the equations were describing gravity as it operated at the quantum level. Again the findings created hardly a ripple among researchers who were reluctant to go chasing after strands of energy that were supposedly billions of times smaller than atoms.
Schwartz was only able to dig up one ally in his quest. He was joined by Michael Green from the University of Cambridge and they plodded onward with no encouragement or support other than their own conviction that they were on the right path. Schwartz and Green were led inexorably to the conclusion that not only did String Theory describe the workings of gravity at the quantum level, but it offered promise of Einstein's unfulfilled dream of combining the Four Forces into one all encompassing, genuine Theory of Everything. Expecting their usual cool reception by the big guys, they were bowled over by the response. String theory suddenly became a major league strange attractor, and literally hundreds of budding young physicists rushed to jump on the String Theory bandwagon.
For a time this theoretical stampede threatened to deplete the world supply of chalk, and blank blackboards were hard to find. In became clear very quickly that in order for the equations to work they would have to consider more dimensions than the three spacial ones and one of time that we had grown to know and love. The idea that more dimensions existed than we observed was not new, but it was not generally accepted. Trying to come up with an understandable way of describing these extra dimensions is way out of my reach. They are just there. Accept it and move on. Over time it was pretty well established that there are six extra dimensions. One by one the mathematical anomalies were resolved and at last we had a mature string theory. In fact this overzealous bunch of scientists produced not one but five equally elegant string theories, and once again string theory started losing ground in mainstream science. Which theory described our universe and what, if anything, the other four described was a question that looked unanswerable and threatened to discredit string theory entirely.
In 1995, Ed Whitten, widely considered as Einstein's true successor, announced that he had solved the five theory dilemma. He demonstrated that there were not five different theories, but from the perspective of his discovery there were simply five ways to look at a single theory- like looking at different reflections of an object in a room of mirrors.
*collective sigh of relief quickly followed by gasps of astonishment*
Whitten had found yet another dimension hidden in the mathematics, and this one would rattle the cage of scientific knowledge. The newly discovered dimension, the eleventh, reveled that just as the vibrating strands of energy were far, far, smaller than anything proposed before, they also could expand fantastically large; forming a membrane that contains the entire universe. This concept is so profound that many think string theory should be renamed M Theory, after Whitten's discovery. No one seems to be sure what the M stands for, and that seems perfectly appropriate, for we have arrived at the final frontier of science as we know it.
Le capsule of string theory everything
At the very bottom, everything in the universe, all matter, all forces, are composed of tiny vibrating strands of energy. Billions and billions of times smaller than the smallest particle known heretofore, they are probably too small to ever be observed directly--- perhaps even indirectly. The constitutes of everything is a function of the vibrating shapes of these elementary strands moving along the three dimensions we can see, up, down; back, forth; side to side; plus the dimension of time; plus the strands can move is six directions along dimensions we don't perceive. And then our entire universe exists on a single dimensional membrane of energy (called a brane by the in crowd). This is also where science fiction meets science fact, proving once and for all the maxim "truth is stranger than fiction". Everything material, and most forces, are attached on one end to this Membrane 11, and we are stuck here.
Some of these strands of energy come in the form of closed loops, rather than two ended strands, and these closed loops make up gravity. String theory, or M theory, brings gravity on board with the other three known forces. The electromagnetic force, the strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force appear to be 1+39zeros times stronger than the force of gravity. Because gravity is a closed loop, it is not attached to our universal membrane and is free to leave the surface dimension. An analogy to help perceive this is to imagine a pool table. The pool balls can move freely on the surface of the table but are bound by gravity to its surface. But when one ball strikes another something does leave the table surface. Sound waves. [By the way, this example, and far and away the most productive reference source I used for this chapter can be seen online in a fantastic Nova program found here.]
Where gravity goes when it leaves our universe, makes Alice's journeys about as exciting as bridge night in a retirement home. By now gravity has a name, a Graviton. The icon visualizing the composition of our universe as looking like tiny solar systems has been replaced by a more appropriate avatar--- a loaf of bread. The membrane on which we exist is but one slice of bread in the humongous higher dimensional blob of everything loaf. [Please, no questions about a baker]. These branes could be floating around in an everything so vast that the universe we observe is but a single speck. But then they could also be right here, right now, just a single dimension away from our perception. And gravity is just as strong as the three other known forces. It holds everything together, so we can feel just a tiny bit of its strength in our universe.
And so we come to the reason I wrote about science and religion together. We may never, never be able to demonstrate scientifically the existence of strands. The argument is that the rock bottom nature of science requires laboratory proof before a theory can be accepted as science. In this view string theory can never become a science, only a philosophy (like religion). This debate rages on in the elegant world of higher mathematics, and keeping the state of our language as depicted in the last chapter in mind, the debate might rage on forever. The implications of string theory have a much more pragmatic meaning for the rest of us. This new science can never provide us with a final answer to our existence. In fact it has, and can have, no relevance at all to our everyday existence. There won't be any tools developed from the science that we can put to use. They would be too tiny to use. There can be no medical breakthroughs based on knowledge gleaned from string theory--- nothing from there can be applied to anything in the world that frames our existence. Theoretical science has become a private party. We ain't invited.
Well, golly, if religion can't take care of us, and science can't take care of us whatever shall we do? That I can answer. Turn on your flashlight (you did keep the flashlight I gave you back a few chapters ago didn't you)? Look around you. Which direction do you think we should go? Lead on.
And as my magic writing carpet rises from this page and moves off toward the next chapter, which I am tentatively calling Haints (look it up in a southern dictionary), one last look reveals two figures standing in a field. Zoom in. Ah, it is Abdul and Levy and they are playing Rock, Paper, Scissors! Perhaps there is hope after all.
Next up, after several name changes--- Haints
In another area of scientific progression toward a steady state, entirely predictable universe. James Clerk Maxwell, whom Einstein greatly admired, had developed the idea that both electricity and magnetism were governed by the same set of laws, and he correctly calculated that electric and magnetic waves moved through empty space at a speed of 310,740,000 meters per second. This figure was so close to the speed of light that Einstein believed they were all covered by the same set of universal laws, and he spent the rest of his life determined to come up with a single equation set that would fully describe the entire universe. The most difficult barrier to an all encompassing theory was the fact that the electromagnetic force was billions of times stronger than the force of gravity. But Einstein believed that he was so close to developing the Theory of Everything that he pretty much lost contact with the rest of the scientific world,
Meanwhile, back at the ranch, Neils Bohr had turned his gaze from the vastness of outer space to the atomistic inner existence. Long gone were the days when atoms were considered the smallest particle, giving rise to The Theory of Everything metaphor that atoms were like tiny solar systems with the nucleus, consisting of neutrons and protons and with electrons orbiting around the nucleus like little planets around the sun. But in the quest to understand what was going on in the interaction between these parts the equations that worked so well in describing the vast universe produced nonsense results when they were applied to the inner workings of atoms.
* Enter Quantum Mechanics. General Relativity exits stage right*
As Bohr and his colleagues began poking around inside the atom the things they discovered seemed absolutely insane when viewed from the perspective of our everyday world. Perhaps the most disconcerting was that one could never be sure about exactly what was going to happen there. The certainty of Relativistic calculations could only be expressed as probabilities in the Quantum world. In addition to a universe of uncertainty at the subatomic level, scientists soon discovered two more forces to add to the electromagnetic/gravity stew. Balancing the strange reality scientists found at the subatomic level with mundane words to describe what they discovered, they dubbed the first new force the Strong Nuclear Force, which bound the protons and neutrons tightly together, and the other, the Weak Nuclear Force, which gave permission for neutrons to turn into protons as long as they gave back some energy in the form of radiation. While the proof of gravity arose from the wussy force of a falling apple, proof of the quantum world was a bit more dramatic, coming in the form of an explosion 100 feet in the air over our western desert in 1945 with the force of 20,000 tons of TNT.
Both the mathematics of General Relativity and the mathematics of Quantum Mechanics held up in the rigorous laboratory of scientific research. But still, the prospects for one grand Theory of Everything were looking pretty dim. Here we had two opposing views of the universe, each of which played extremely well in their home court but resisted being combined with a tenacity that put the Strong Nuclear Force to shame. [No extra charge for mixed metaphors].
Meanwhile, back at the other ranch of high energy particle physics, the structure of the atom was getting vastly more complex. By smashing particles together at fantastic speeds and recording the results, the population of subatomic particles was growing rapidly. Physicists were once again hopeful that they were well on the road to the Theory of Everything. Perhaps a little too presumptuously, they called their theory the Standard Model. But once again the ultimate party pooper quelled the celebration. Gravity. It was still the odd man out. Gravity had no discernable impact on the tiny particles within the subatomic world, and the ability to combine gravity with the other three forces seemed an unattainable goal.
While scientists were becoming more comfortable with the strange world of quantum mechanics, a far stranger development was brewing on the wrong side of the theoretical tracks. Mathematics that would eventually be called String Theory were taking shape. Seldom has a growing body of knowledge had a bumpier, roller coaster ride on the mathematical credibility train. Even its beginning had a
sort of a twilight zone quality to it. An Italian physicist had come across a 200 year old equation that he eventually came to understand perfectly described the Strong Nuclear force, but the equation appeared long before anyone even imagined the inner workings of atoms. Eventually, Leonard Susskind became fascinated with an odd aspect of the equation. Rather than pointing to an even smaller particle, the equation seemed to be suggesting movement at the deepest level. The very bottom of things seemed to be flexible strands of energy that appeared to vibrate in a fantastic array of shapes and configurations. As with many if not most new ideas that radically challenge accepted viewpoints, the implications that the bottom of everything was a tiny strand of energy rather than a tiny fixed particle did not attract much attention from the scientific frontiers.
Most of the scientific gentry dismissed the equation as a mathematical curiosity, and only a few physicists continued to develop the concepts. Not only was the development plagued with serious anomalies, but the mathematics also suggested a massless particle, something that couldn't be seen and probably didn't exist. Among the recalcitrant diehards, John Schwartz struggled for four years trying to solve some of the intractable problems with little success. But then one night Schwartz had a Newtonian moment. The weight of a massless particle falling on his head was less traumatic than the apple that bonked Newton's noggin, but the result was eerily the same. Schwartz realized that the equations were describing gravity as it operated at the quantum level. Schwartz was only able to dig up one ally in his quest. He was joined by Michael Green from the University of Cambridge and they plodded onward with no encouragement or support other than their own conviction that they were on the right path. Schwartz and Green were led inexorably to the conclusion that not only did String Theory describe the workings of gravity at the quantum level, but it offered promise of Einstein's unfulfilled dream of combining the Four Forces into one all encompassing, genuine Theory of Everything. Expecting their usual cool reception by the big guys, they were bowled over by the response. String theory suddenly became a major league strange attractor, and literally hundreds of budding young physicists rushed to jump on the String Theory bandwagon.
While scientists were becoming more comfortable with the strange world of quantum mechanics, a far stranger development was brewing on the wrong side of the theoretical tracks. Mathematics that would eventually be called String Theory were taking shape. The work was generally ignored by mainstream research, but it just wouldn't go away. Its beginning had sort of a twilight zone quality to it. An Italian physicist had come across a 200 year old equation that he eventually came to understand perfectly described the Strong Nuclear force, but the equation appeared long before anyone even imagined the inner workings of atoms. Eventually, one physicist became fascinated with an odd aspect of the equation. Rather than pointing to an even smaller particle, the equation seemed to be suggesting movement at the deepest level. The very bottom of things seemed to be flexible strands of energy that appeared to vibrate in a fantastic array of shapes and configurations. However, his discovery was basically ignored by the status quo of theoretical research.
Only a few physicists continued to dabble in an area that the scientific gentry had dismissed entirely. Among the recalcitrant diehards, John Schwartz struggled for four years trying to solve some of the intractable problems that developed within the mathematics. One, the theory suggested a massless particle, something that couldn't be seen and probably didn't exist. Also the theory was plagued by a series of anomalies, a fact that I report to you because Schwartz and others said so, not because I understand, even vaguely what they were. But then one night Schwartz had a Newtonian moment. The weight of a massless particle falling on his head was less traumatic than the apple that bonked Newton's noggin, but the result was eerily the same. Schwartz realized that the equations were describing gravity as it operated at the quantum level. Again the findings created hardly a ripple among researchers who were reluctant to go chasing after strands of energy that were supposedly billions of times smaller than atoms.
Schwartz was only able to dig up one ally in his quest. He was joined by Michael Green from the University of Cambridge and they plodded onward with no encouragement or support other than their own conviction that they were on the right path. Schwartz and Green were led inexorably to the conclusion that not only did String Theory describe the workings of gravity at the quantum level, but it offered promise of Einstein's unfulfilled dream of combining the Four Forces into one all encompassing, genuine Theory of Everything. Expecting their usual cool reception by the big guys, they were bowled over by the response. String theory suddenly became a major league strange attractor, and literally hundreds of budding young physicists rushed to jump on the String Theory bandwagon.
For a time this theoretical stampede threatened to deplete the world supply of chalk, and blank blackboards were hard to find. In became clear very quickly that in order for the equations to work they would have to consider more dimensions than the three spacial ones and one of time that we had grown to know and love. The idea that more dimensions existed than we observed was not new, but it was not generally accepted. Trying to come up with an understandable way of describing these extra dimensions is way out of my reach. They are just there. Accept it and move on. Over time it was pretty well established that there are six extra dimensions. One by one the mathematical anomalies were resolved and at last we had a mature string theory. In fact this overzealous bunch of scientists produced not one but five equally elegant string theories, and once again string theory started losing ground in mainstream science. Which theory described our universe and what, if anything, the other four described was a question that looked unanswerable and threatened to discredit string theory entirely.
In 1995, Ed Whitten, widely considered as Einstein's true successor, announced that he had solved the five theory dilemma. He demonstrated that there were not five different theories, but from the perspective of his discovery there were simply five ways to look at a single theory- like looking at different reflections of an object in a room of mirrors.
*collective sigh of relief quickly followed by gasps of astonishment*
Whitten had found yet another dimension hidden in the mathematics, and this one would rattle the cage of scientific knowledge. The newly discovered dimension, the eleventh, reveled that just as the vibrating strands of energy were far, far, smaller than anything proposed before, they also could expand fantastically large; forming a membrane that contains the entire universe. This concept is so profound that many think string theory should be renamed M Theory, after Whitten's discovery. No one seems to be sure what the M stands for, and that seems perfectly appropriate, for we have arrived at the final frontier of science as we know it.
Le capsule of string theory everything
At the very bottom, everything in the universe, all matter, all forces, are composed of tiny vibrating strands of energy. Billions and billions of times smaller than the smallest particle known heretofore, they are probably too small to ever be observed directly--- perhaps even indirectly. The constitutes of everything is a function of the vibrating shapes of these elementary strands moving along the three dimensions we can see, up, down; back, forth; side to side; plus the dimension of time; plus the strands can move is six directions along dimensions we don't perceive. And then our entire universe exists on a single dimensional membrane of energy (called a brane by the in crowd). This is also where science fiction meets science fact, proving once and for all the maxim "truth is stranger than fiction". Everything material, and most forces, are attached on one end to this Membrane 11, and we are stuck here.
Some of these strands of energy come in the form of closed loops, rather than two ended strands, and these closed loops make up gravity. String theory, or M theory, brings gravity on board with the other three known forces. The electromagnetic force, the strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force appear to be 1+39zeros times stronger than the force of gravity. Because gravity is a closed loop, it is not attached to our universal membrane and is free to leave the surface dimension. An analogy to help perceive this is to imagine a pool table. The pool balls can move freely on the surface of the table but are bound by gravity to its surface. But when one ball strikes another something does leave the table surface. Sound waves. [By the way, this example, and far and away the most productive reference source I used for this chapter can be seen online in a fantastic Nova program found here.]
Where gravity goes when it leaves our universe, makes Alice's journeys about as exciting as bridge night in a retirement home. By now gravity has a name, a Graviton. The icon visualizing the composition of our universe as looking like tiny solar systems has been replaced by a more appropriate avatar--- a loaf of bread. The membrane on which we exist is but one slice of bread in the humongous higher dimensional blob of everything loaf. [Please, no questions about a baker]. These branes could be floating around in an everything so vast that the universe we observe is but a single speck. But then they could also be right here, right now, just a single dimension away from our perception. And gravity is just as strong as the three other known forces. It holds everything together, so we can feel just a tiny bit of its strength in our universe.
And so we come to the reason I wrote about science and religion together. We may never, never be able to demonstrate scientifically the existence of strands. The argument is that the rock bottom nature of science requires laboratory proof before a theory can be accepted as science. In this view string theory can never become a science, only a philosophy (like religion). This debate rages on in the elegant world of higher mathematics, and keeping the state of our language as depicted in the last chapter in mind, the debate might rage on forever. The implications of string theory have a much more pragmatic meaning for the rest of us. This new science can never provide us with a final answer to our existence. In fact it has, and can have, no relevance at all to our everyday existence. There won't be any tools developed from the science that we can put to use. They would be too tiny to use. There can be no medical breakthroughs based on knowledge gleaned from string theory--- nothing from there can be applied to anything in the world that frames our existence. Theoretical science has become a private party. We ain't invited.
Well, golly, if religion can't take care of us, and science can't take care of us whatever shall we do? That I can answer. Turn on your flashlight (you did keep the flashlight I gave you back a few chapters ago didn't you)? Look around you. Which direction do you think we should go? Lead on.
And as my magic writing carpet rises from this page and moves off toward the next chapter, which I am tentatively calling Haints (look it up in a southern dictionary), one last look reveals two figures standing in a field. Zoom in. Ah, it is Abdul and Levy and they are playing Rock, Paper, Scissors! Perhaps there is hope after all.
Next up, after several name changes--- Haints
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/elegant/program.html
Back to Precipitous Patterns Table of Contents
